The Return of the Classics: The Global Circulation and Reception of Chinese Xiqu Adaptations of Foreign Plays
Chen Shuying
Abstract:
Since the beginning of the 1980s, an increasing number of foreign plays have been adapted and performed in the form of Chinese xiqu, and performances abroad have become more frequent, contributing to the growing presence of Chinese xiqu on the global stage. In terms of circulation pathways, these performances occur primarily through official cultural visits, civil and commercial exchanges, and international theatre festivals. With the advent of the digital age. digital media platforms have become an important means of dissemination. As a circulation strategy, Chinese playwrights often choose Western classics as bridges and vehicles, leveraging their cultural prestige and influence to facilitate the international circulation xiqu adaptations. The reception of these adaptations abroad has generally been positive, owing not only to the intrinsic artistic charm of xiqu but also to international audiences' interest in alternative interpretations of literary masterpieces. These adaptations of foreign classics strike a balance between universality and cultural specificity, offering unique values and significance in cross-cultural communication.
Keywords:
Chinese xiqu adaptation, global circulation, audience reception
As early as the beginning of the 20th century, Chinese playwrights began adapting and transplanting foreign plays into traditional Chinese xiqu through cross-cultural reinterpretation. In the early years of the Republic of China (1912–1949), Mr. Wang Guoren of the Sichuan Opera Troupe of Ya'an adapted Shakespeare’s Hamlet into the Sichuan opera Shaxiong duosao (Killing One’s Elder Brother and Seizing His Wife). This was “the first time Sichuan opera attempted to introduce Western culture, especially Western classic plays into China as a model.”[1] Since then, adaptations of foreign plays into xiqu have steadily increased, particularly in genres such as Yue opera and Hu opera. The 1980s witnessed a second peak of Western influence flowing eastward, ushering in a new phase of adapting foreign works into Chinese xiqu. To address the challenges xiqu faced at the time during the “Extensive Discussion on Theatrical Aesthetics”, Chinese playwrights proposed a guiding principle for the xiqu reform, known as “horizontal appropriation.” This approach aimed to revitalize and innovate xiqu by incorporating elements from other art forms and drawing on the underlying ideas and aesthetic techniques of foreign plays. During this period, numerous playwrights actively experimented with adapting foreign plays into xiqu, leading to a wave of creative exploration and reinterpretation. Since the beginning of the 1980s, increasingly frequent cultural exchanges have enabled these adaptations to reach international audiences through overseas tours and participation in global theater festivals. Cross-cultural communication and exchange have become ever more dynamic. Since the turn of the century, the number of overseas performances has surged, resulting in a significant expansion in both the breadth and depth of their global circulation and reception.
Current academic research on the adaptation of foreign drama into Chinese opera primarily centers on the following topics: first, the selection and rationale behind choosing specific foreign works; second, comparative aesthetic analyses examining how adaptations preserve or transform elements of the originals; third, innovations in xiqu performance and the incorporation of Western theatrical techniques; and fourth, the significance of the theatrical adaptation of foreign plays for the development and modernization of Chinese xiqu. In existing scholarship,
[1] Gao Shanhu, The Cross-Cultural Dissemination of Sichuan Opera (China Theatre Press,
2019) 42.
discussions of cross-cultural transmission and reception largely focus on how foreign plays are localized to align with Chinese cultural contexts and audience preferences. However, relatively few studies have explored in depth how these xiqu adaptations of Western plays are communicated and received in international contexts. This article focuses on the global circulation of Chinese xiqu adaptations of foreign plays and the reception of international audiences. Framed within the context of global cultural flows, it examines the distinctiveness and cultural agency of these adaptations as they navigate across literary forms, aesthetic traditions, and cultural boundaries in their circulation and resonance beyond China.
I. International Circulation Pathways for the Chinese Xiqu Adaptations of Foreign Plays
Currently, the cross-cultural communication of Chinese xiqu adaptations of foreign plays occurs primarily through overseas performances, participations in international theater festivals, and distribution via digital and new media platforms. Overseas performances can be further categorized into several types, including state-sponsored visits, touring productions, grassroots cultural exchange initiatives, and commercial performances. Since the beginning of the 1980s, the increased dissemination of Chinese xiqu in international community has led to a diversification of dissemination pathways. They are no longer confined to the official cultural delegations that characterized the early years of the People’s Republic of China. Instead, there has been a marked rise in grassroot initiatives and commercial engagements. For example, since 2000, three xiqu productions adapted from the works of American playwright Eugene O’Neill have been performed in the United States as part of cultural exchange and international outreach efforts (see Figure 1). In 2002, the Zhengzhou Qu Opera Troupe toured five U.S. cities with Yushu guzhai (The Old House Under the Elms), the adaptation of Desire Under the Elms. In 2014, the Ningbo Yong Opera Troupe performed An Di, an adaptation of Anna Christie, at Grinnell College and Penn State University. That same year, the Chengdu Academy of Sichuan Opera toured five American cities with Yuhai kuangchao (Raging Waves in the Sea of Desire), another adaptation of Desire Under the Elms. In addition, the Zhejiang Xiaobaihua Yue Opera Troupe’s 2016 production Kou Liulan yu Du Liniang (Coriolanus and Du Liniang) stands out as a representative of commercial overseas performances. This innovative production fused Shakespeare’s Coriolanus with Tang Xianzu’s The Peony Pavilion and was staged at a mainstream venue in London with a box revenue. It subsequently toured the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Austria over a 22-day period.[1]
Table 1. An Overview of Three Xiqu Adaptations of Eugene O’Neill’s Plays Since the New Millennium[2] in the U.S.
| Performance | Date | Location | Principle Production Team |
| Henan Qu Opera: Yushu guzhai (Adapted from Eugene O'Neill’s Desire Under the Elms) | August 23–24, 2002 | Grand Performances, Los Angeles |
Performing Troupe: Zhengzhou Qu Opera Troupe Director: Xie Kang Script: Meng Hua Main Performers: |
| August 28, 2002 | Kansas State University | ||
|
September 5–7, 2002 |
Roberts Theater, Grinnell College, Iowa | ||
| Unknown | Minnesota State University, Mankato | ||
| Unknown | Saint Louis University, Missouri |
[1] See Ling Laifang, Research on the Cross-Cultural Dissemination and International Translation of Chinese Opera: A Case Study of Yue Opera (Zhejiang Gongshang University Press, 2019) 162.
[2] This table was compiled by the author, with reference to the following sources:
Liu Haiping’s “O'Neill, Chinese Opera, and Sino-American Cultural Exchange—A Discussion
Starting from Zhengzhou Qu Opera Troupe’s Visit to the U.S.”
Guo Jide (ed.), Collected Essays on Eugene O'Neill Drama Studies (Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2003),
"Today Sichuan Opera Theater of Chengdu’s ‘Raging Waves in the Sea of Desire’ Goes
to the U.S.", the official WeChat account Chengdu Academy of Sichuan
“Old House Under the Elms, Adaptation of Desire Under the Elms, Roberts Theater, Grinnell
College, 2002: September 5–7,” Harley Hammerman Collection on Eugene O’Neill,
“Sharing the Stage," Grinnell College, October 1, 2014.
"Penn State Greater Allegheny to Welcome Ningbo Opera," Penn State University, October
7, 2014.
| Performance | Date | Location | Principle Production Team |
| Yong Opera: Andi (Adapted from Eugene O’Neill's Anna Christie) | October 10–11, 2014 | Roberts Theater, Grinnell College, Iowa |
Performing Troupe: Ningbo Yong Opera Troupe Directors: Wang Xiaoying, Chen Tao Script: Meng Hua Main Performers: |
| October 13, 2014 |
Wunderley Gymnasium, Penn State Greater Allegheny, Pennsylvania |
||
| Sichuan Opera: Yuhai kuangchao (Adapted from Eugene O'Neill’s Desire Under the Elms) | October 24, 2014 | F. Scott Fitzgerald Theatre at Rockville Civic Center Park, Washington, D.C. |
Performing Troupe: Chengdu Academy of Sichuan Opera Director: Zhang Manchun Script: Xu Fen Main Performers: |
| October 25, 2014 | The Gerald W. Lynch Theatre, New York | ||
| October 28, 2014 | Sette LaVerghetta Center for Performing Arts, Scranton, Pennsylvania | ||
| November 1, 2014 | Joshua Mabry Performing Arts Center, Atlanta | ||
| November 2, 2014 | Auditorium, Peachtree Ridge High School, North Atlanta |
In addition to overseas performances, many Chinese xiqu adaptations of foreign plays have been frequently invited to participate in theater and arts festivals worldwide. For example, the Kun opera Xueshou ji (Bloodstained Hands, adapted from Macbeth) took part in the first Shakespeare Theatre Festival held in China in 1986, and was later presented the following year at the 41st Edinburgh International Festival. [1] In 2000, the Sichuan Opera Makebai furen (Lady Macbeth, adapted from Macbeth) by the Chengdu Academy of Sichuan Opera was featured at the 22nd Cairo International Festival for Experimental Theatre.[2] In 2016, an adaptation of Nikolai Gogol’s The Government Inspector by the Quanzhou Gaojia Opera Heritage Center was invited for performance at the Dhaka International Monodrama Festival in Bangladesh. [3] In 2017, the Anhui Hui and Peking Opera Theatre premiered its Hui opera Jinghun ji (A Terrified Soul, an adaptation of Macbeth) at the 25th Varna Summer International Theatre Festival in Bulgaria. That same year, it was also featured at the World Congress and Festival of the International Theatre Institute in Segovia, Spain, and was later staged at the Nasimi Festival in Azerbaijan in 2019.[4] These international festivals have not only provided platforms for showcasing xiqu but have also fostered in-depth dialogues and cultural exchange between Chinese xiqu and diverse global cultures.
Compared with traditional xiqu repertoires, adaptations of foreign classic plays often have greater opportunities to enter specialized theater festivals dedicated to the original playwrights. In 2001, the Sichuan Youth Opera Troupe brought the Sichuan opera Makebai furen to Bremen, Germany,
[1] Alfred Weiss, “The Edinburgh Festival, 1987,” Shakespeare Quarterly 39, no. 1 (1988): 79–89.
[2] Gao Shanhu, The Cross-Cultural Communication of Sichuan Opera, 55.
[3] “Quanzhou Gaojia One-Act Play ‘The Inspector General Shines in Bangladesh”, Quanzhou
Municipal People’s Government Website, December 12, 2016.
[4] See the archival materials on the official website of the Varna Summer International
Theatre Festival:
“Theater Bulletin” section of the official website of Anhui Hui and Peking Opera Theatre, July 14, 2017:
Hui Opera “A Terrified Soul” Appears in Azerbaijan, People’s Daily Online, October
18, 2019:
to perform at the opening ceremony of the 2nd Shakespeare Arts Festival.[1] In 2005, the Shanghai Peking Opera Company performed the Peking opera Wangzi fuchou ji (The Revenge of the Prince, adapted from Hamlet), at the Shakespeare Festival held in the Hamlet Castle in Denmark (commonly known as Kronborg Castle). Since the performance was highly acclaimed, and in 2018, the troupe returned to Kronborg with the same production to open the Shakespeare Festival in that year. In addition, in 2014, the China Ping Opera Theatre adapted Aeschylus’s Oresteia into a Ping opera Chengbang enchou (Legend of Two Cities), which was performed in 2015 at the opening ceremony of the Aeschylus Festival in Greece.[2] The international scholars and theatre enthusiasts have the opportunities to appreciate the unique charm of Chinese xiqu in these adaptations, which also enrich interpretations of world classics by presenting their thematic depth and performance styles through diverse cultural lenses.
In the current age of new media, digital platforms have emerged as major avenues for the circulation of theatrical productions. Global Shakespeares (), an online archive established by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, is dedicated to documenting the global reception and performance of Shakespeare’s plays. The website curates an extensive archive of performances of Shakespeare’s plays from regions such as Asia, Europe, the United States, the United Kingdom, Latin America, and the Arab world, thereby facilitating a new mode of cultural exchange in the digital age. The official website introduces it as follows: “Global Shakespeares is a participatory multi-centric networked model that offers wide access to international performances that are changing how we understand Shakespeare’s plays and the world.” [3] The archive includes adaptations of Shakespeare’s plays in various forms of xiqu, such as yueju (Shaoxing opera), Peking opera, Sixian opera, Kunqu opera, Cantonese opera, Huangmei opera, and Huadeng opera, and offers video resources for some of the productions. Users can watch online performances such as Wushi shengfei (an adaptation of Much Ado 亚洲情色 Nothing) by the Anhui Huangmei Opera Theatre (1986), Wangzi fuchou ji, adapted from Hamlet by the Shanghai Yue Opera House (1994), and Sichuan opera Makebai furen (Lady Macbeth) at the Shakespeare Arts Festival in Germany (2001). Most of these videos are accompanied by English subtitles and include detailed information such as playwright, director, cast, and theater company, making them accessible and valuable for international audiences interested in both viewing and conducting scholarly research. Another influential online database, the World Shakespeare Bibliography (), compiles globe wide information on Shakespeare performances dating back to 1960, including detailed records of Chinese modern drama and opera adaptations. Together, these two digital archives provide scholars and theatre enthusiasts worldwide with valuable access to Chinese adaptations and presentations of Shakespeare’s works. In addition, international video-sharing and social media platforms such as YouTube, TikTok, and Instagram have become channels for the promotion of Chinese xiqu adaptations of foreign plays. For example, the Instagram account “visit_Shaanxi” released a post introducing the Qinqiang adaptation of Hamlet performed by Xi’an’s sanyishe in 2021. Although the volume of such content remains relatively limited, digital platforms function as accessible entry point for the general public to engage with these cultural productions. Advances in internet and mobile technologies forged a seamless relationship between the cultural and artistic dissemination and new media. These mass communication platforms are poised to play a more prominent role in facilitating cross-cultural exchange and promoting the global visibility of the performing arts.
II. Foreign Classics as Bridges and Mediators of Cultures
The overseas dissemination of Chinese xiqu adaptations of foreign plays reflects a dynamic, two-way cultural flow. Playwrights
adapt these works into xiqu forms that align with Chinese social and cultural context, reworking and reinterpreting
them to resonate with the aesthetic sensibilities and cultural perceptions of Chinese
audiences.
[1] Gao Shanhu, The Cross-Cultural Communication of Sichuan Opera, 55
[2] “China Ping Opera ‘City-State Feuds’ Performed at Greek Drama Festival,” Xinhua
International, July 31, 2015.
[3] See “Global Shakespeares” website: .
These adaptations are then reintroduced to international markets, where they are received and evaluated within new cultural frameworks. In this ongoing process of cross-cultural circulation, foreign plays serve as vital bridges, connecting diverse cultures.
The preceding section of this article presented examples of Chinese xiqu adaptations of foreign plays. Since the 1980s, the majority of these adaptations have been based on Shakespeare’s works, which continue to represent the dominant trend in the incorporation of Western drama into Chinese xiqu. In addition to Shakespeare, plays by other internationally renowned playwrights, such as Eugene O’Neill, Euripides, Bertolt Brecht, Henrik Ibsen, and Sophocles, are also frequently chosen for adaptation. It is evident that Chinese playwrights tend to favor globally recognized playwrights and canonical masterpieces, particularly those from the Western literary tradition, when selecting foreign works for xiqu reinterpretation. Since the beginning of the 21st century, globalization has facilitated unprecedented cultural exchange. However, the literary works that achieve wide recognition and global dissemination continue to be predominately Western classics. In contrast, literature from other regions remains relatively marginalized on the stage of world literature, constrained by factors such as language and cultural barriers, limited publishing opportunities, and insufficient market promotion. Since the 1960s, scholars have engaged in sustained reflection and debate over the dominance and hegemony of Euro-American literary classics. Critics have argued that the Western canon is often imbued with elitism, patriarchy, and ethnocentrism, and that it tends to neglect the diversity of world literary classics, including African and Asian literatures, minority ethnic literatures, and works by women writers. Nevertheless, these critiques appear to have had only limited impact on the global literary hierarchy. The case of Chinese xiqu adaptations of foreign plays further illustrates the persistent Eurocentrism in world literature. Western classics continue to occupy a central and dominant position within the global literary canon. When Chinese playwrights adapt foreign dramas, they almost invariably prioritize works from European and American literary traditions.
This is, in part, attributable to the transcendent and universal value often embodied in Western classics. In the chapter titled “An Elegy for the Canon,” Harold Bloom argued that an excessive focus on the ideological construction of the canon can obscure its literary and aesthetic merits. He praised the vitality and originality of canonical works and emphasized the role of individual readers in shaping the value of the canon, stating that “[a]ll strong literary originality becomes canonical.”[1] Literary classics are considered transcendent and universal because they cross cultural, national, and religious boundaries, engage with existential concerns shared by all of humanity, and offer deep reflections on the being of individuals. Bloom repeatedly emphasized Shakespeare’s “centrality in the Western canon” and argued that “[i]f we could conceive of a universal canon, multicultural and multivalent, its one essential book would not be a scripture, whether Bible, Koran, or Eastern text, but rather Shakespeare, who is acted and read everywhere, in every language and circumstance."[2] Currently, Chinese dramatists continue to predominantly draw on Western classics when adapting foreign plays, while engagement with the literary traditions of other cultures remains rare. In future xiqu adaptations, placing greater emphasis on diversity and inclusivity in source material represents a valuable direction. Nevertheless, within the current global literary discourse, the preference for Western classics remains both reasonable and pragmatic. There are numerous reasons for choosing to adapt canonical works, including their broad recognition and universal appeal, the interpretive depth they offer, their capacity to inspire new forms of artistic expression, their potential to educate and inspire the public, and their commercial viability and market value. This paper will focus on exploring the communicative value of adapting classic texts, rather than reiterating their literary or aesthetic significance.
In his book What Is World Literature?, David Damrosch points out: “A work enters into world literature by a double process:
first, by being read as literature; second, by circulating out into a broader world
beyond its linguistic and cultural point of origin.”[3] The works of these authors become world literary classics through processes of translation,
circulation, and reproduction. This canonization is inseparable from institutional
forces such as education, publishing, museums, literary awards, and other global mechanisms
that shape and sustain collective cultural memory. As sociologist Pierre Bourdieu
has noted, “the work is in fact made not twice, but hundreds of times, thousands of
times, by all those who have an interest in it,
[1] Harold Bloom, The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1994) 24. The quotation, cited by the author,
is drawn from the Chinese translation of this book: Xifang zhengdian: Weida de zuojia he buxiu de zuopin, translated by Jiang Ningkang (Yilin Press, 2005)18.
[2] Harold Bloom, The Western Canon, 24, 36-7. The quotation, cited by the author, is drawn from the Chinese translation of this book,17, 27.
[3] David Damrosch. What Is World Literature? (Princeton University Press, 2003), 6. The quotation, cited by the author, is drawn from the Chinese translation of this book: Shenme shi shijie wenxue?, translated by Zha Mingjian and Song Mingyi (Peking University Press, 2015) 7.
who find a material or symbolic profit in reading it, classifying it, decoding it, commenting on it, reproducing it, criticizing it, combating it, knowing it, possessing it.” [1]To take Shakespeare as an example, his works have been published in hundreds of editions, performed on stages around the world for centuries, adapted into films, translated into dozens of languages, and extensively studied by scholars. Over time, the accumulation and sedimentation of these processes have firmly established Shakespeare’s legacy. Bourdieu proposed the concept of “cultural capital,” arguing that it “can exist in three forms”: “the embodied state,” “the objectified state,” and “the institutionalized state.”[2] The immense value and influence of Shakespeare’s works on a global scale exemplify “cultural capital”: readers’ understanding and appreciation of his plays represent cultural capital “in the embodied state”; the physical books, performances, souvenirs, and exhibitions constitute cultural capital “in the objectified state”; and his impact on education, social prestige, cultural heritage, and the humanities reflects cultural capital “in the institutionalized state.” Given their growing influence among readers and audiences, these renowned playwrights and their works have become cultural heritage and icons that can travel across the globe.
Many Chinese dramatists, in the process of adapting foreign classics, consider both their impact in China and their prospects for international performance and recognition. For instance, in the 1980s, director Huang Zuolin produced the Kun opera Xueshou ji. In his article “Why Stage Shakespeare in Kun Opera,” he stated, “We not only wish to retain our traditional audiences but also to cultivate and attract new ones. Our aim is to popularize Shakespeare among the broader Chinese public while also introducing the ancient art of Kunqu opera to international audiences.”[3] Director Luo Jinlin adapted several ancient Greek tragedies into Chinese xiqu performances. He emphasized, “From the very beginning, our goal was to create a form that, to Chinese audiences, appears as reformed traditional xiqu, while to foreign audiences, it represents a quintessential example of Chinese xiqu.”[4] In 1999, Xie Kang, director of the Yu opera Yushu guzhai, produced by the Zhengzhou Yu Opera Troupe, expressed his intention to bring the adaptation of Desire Under the Elms internationally.[5] One could contend that, in adapting foreign dramas into Chinese xiqu, these directors consciously evaluated the feasibility of cross-cultural dissemination and the reception among international audiences. They sought to leverage the widespread recognition of classic works to promote their adaptations abroad, thereby enhancing the global influence of Chinese xiqu. Moreover, the adaptation of world classic dramas into Chinese xiqu represents a process of cultural reproduction, as the fame and prestige of these celebrated playwrights further enhance the value of the derivative works. At international drama and arts festivals, adaptations of well-known classics into Chinese xiqu generally attract more attention and interest compared to xiqu repertoires. As discussed earlier, the decision to choose the United States as the destination of the tour for all three xiqu adaptations of Eugene O’Neill’s plays was to evoke a more resonant reception at its cultural point of origin as the audiences are well-acquainted with his work.
Thanks to the classics, xiqu adaptations gained greater recognition and visibility in international dissemination.
Simultaneously, these adaptations reinforce the enduring influence and canonical status
of the original works on a global scale, further cementing their significance within
the literary tradition. The canonization of literary works is a dynamic process of
continuous accumulation and renewal. In the era of globalization, adapting these plays
across diverse cultural contexts ensures their ongoing transmission and legacy. This
form of cross-cultural recreation not only revitalizes classic works and attaches
new meaning but also enhances their status and impact in the global cultural exchange.
E. Dean Kolbas argues: “Of course, no single adaptation or edition of a work is enough
to canonize it, because the means by which it is disseminated and becomes familiar—in
whatever form—are many and diffuse. Moreover, the consecration of a work in one medium
will often
[1] Pierre Bourdieu, The Rules of Art: Genesis and Structure of the Literary Field, translated by Susan Emanuel (Stanford University Press, 1996)171. The quotation,
cited by the author, is drawn from the Chinese translation of this book, Yishu de faze: Wenxuechang de shengcheng he jiegou, translated by Liu Hui (Central Compilation & Translation Press,2021) 209. See also
the original French edition: Pierre Bourdieu, Les Règles de l’art: Genèse et structure
du champ littéraire (?ditions du Seuil, 1992) 243: L’?uvre est bien faite non pas
deux fois, mais cent fois, mille fois, par tous ceux qui s’y intéressent, qui trouvent
un intérêt matériel ou symbolique à la lire, la classer, la déchiffrer, la commenter,
la reproduire, la critiquer, la combattre, la conna?tre, la posséder.
[2] Pierre Bourdieu, “The Forms of Capital”, translated by Richard Nice, in The Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, edited by John G. Richardson (Greenwood Press, 1986) 243. The quotation, cited by the author, is drawn from the Chinese translation in Wenhua xiben yu shehui lianjinshu: Bu’erdi’ e fangtan lu [Cultural Capital and the Social Alchemy: Interviews with Bourdieu], translated by Bao Yaming (Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1997) 192–193. See also the original German edition: Pierre Bourdieu, “?konomisches Kapital, kulturelles Kapital, soziales Kapital,” in Reinhard Kreckel (ed.), Soziale Ungleichheiten (Soziale Welt, Sonderband 2), G?ttingen: Otto Schwartz, 1983, 186: verinnerlichtem (incorporated), objektiviertem (objectified), and institutionalisiertem (institutionalized) states.
[3] Huang Zuolin, “Why Stage Shakespeare in Kun Opera,” Xiqu yishu (Traditional Opera Arts), no. 4, 1986.
[4] Luo Jinlin, “Mutual Integration and Enrichment Between Greek Tragedy and Chinese Opera,” China Culture Daily, November 18, 2019, 3.
[5] He Chengzhou, “The Professor Salon on ‘Theatrical Adaptation’” Yishu baijia (Hundreds of Schools in Arts), no. 2, 2009.
excite or rekindle interest in its antecedents, thereby furthering the potential for canonization by association with the already canonical.”[1] The reinterpretation of classic works not only sustains the vitality of the originals but also increases the potential for the adaptations themselves to achieve classic status, due to their intrinsic connection to the source plays. The 1989 Sichuan opera Yuhai kuangchao, produced by the Chengdu Academy of Sichuan opera and adapted by renowned playwright Xu Fen, is based on Eugene O’Neill’s Desire Under the Elms, which, in turn, pays homage to the ancient Greek tragedies Hippolytus by Euripides and Oedipus Rex by Sophocles. From the interrogation of divine will and fate in ancient Greece, through the complex exploration of desire and discipline in American Puritanism, to reflections on human nature and material desire in China’s post-reform era, the content and themes of these works have evolved, yet their spiritual core remains consistent. This continuity, which preserves the essence of the classics, contributes to the quality of the adaptations. Since its premiere, Yuhai kuangchao has received widespread acclaim and has become a signature repertoire piece of the Chengdu Academy of Sichuan Opera. Furthermore, international audiences learned about the influence and popularity of these plays in China through the staging of their xiqu adaptations. In 2010, Yuhai kuangchao accepted the invitation to participate in the 17th BeSeTo Theatre Festival in Japan (an annual event held in rotation among China, South Korea, and Japan), and in 2014, it was featured at the 5th Antalya International Theatre Festival in Turkey.[2] These transnational performances and cultural exchanges have significantly enhanced the global reputation of O'Neill’s works.
Xiqu adaptations of foreign plays and their entry into the global market as cultural commodities
bring both new opportunities and complex challenges. Arjun Appadurai argues that “The
key to understanding cultural flow lies in the relationship between the form of circulation
and the circulation of form.”[3] First, in terms of the form of circulation, xiqu adaptations of foreign plays as a relatively recent cultural product are continually
exploring and developing new modes and pathways. Theater and arts festivals, international
awards, cultural exchange programs, touring performances, digital archives, and streaming
platforms all exemplify the ongoing evolution of distribution mechanisms in the global
cultural landscape. Second, in terms of the circulation of forms, once classic theatrical
texts enter the cultural context of the “Other”, they are reinterpreted and redefined
through the interplay and negotiation of diverse social, cultural, and artistic factors.
Appadurai notes: “Finally, the ‘work of the imagination’ and the circulation of forms
produce localities not by the hybridization of contents, art, ideology, or technology,
but by the negotiation and mutual tensions between each other. It is this negotiation
which creates the complex containers which further shape the actual contents of local
practice.”[4] The communication and reception of foreign plays in China are inevitably shaped by
regional differences in culture, customs, aesthetics, and values. This process of
conflict and integration is particularly evident in localized adaptations, both in
xiqu and huaju (spoken drama), as reflected in playwrights' decisions concerning plot selection,
the transposition of temporal and spatial settings, theatrical techniques, and thematic
reinterpretation. Likewise, when Chinese xiqu adaptations of foreign plays are performed abroad, they encounter complex cross-cultural
challenges, including audience expectations, cultural contexts, performance aesthetics,
and language barriers. German theater theorist Erika Fischer-Lichte emphasizes the
role of international theater festivals as vital spaces of cultural interweaving in
a globalized world. However, she also raises important concerns, remarking “What about
productions designed from the outset with a guest tour or an international festival
in mind, in this sense lacking an original 'local' audience: how does this affect
the encounter between performers and spectators? And what about the issue of power
relations when special interests motivate a third party to fund the production of
a particular play or a production using a particular style to be shown in an international
context?”[5] One could say that factors such as target audiences, circulation channels, and the
preference of capital investments play a significant role in shaping the creation
and staging of performances, influencing aspects such as plot construction, aesthetic
style,
[1] E. Dean Kolbas, Critical Theory and The Literary Canon (Boulder: Westview Press, 2001), 65.
[2] Gao Shanhu, The Cross-cultural Communication of Sichuan Opera, 42.
[3] Arjun Appadurai, “How Histories make Geographies: Circulation and Context in a
Global Perspective,” The Journal of Transcultural Studies, no.1 (2010): 7.
[4] Appadurai, “How Histories make Geographies,” 11.
[5] Erika Fischer-Lichte, “Interweaving Cultures in Performance: Theatre in a Globalizing
World,” Theatre Research International 35, no. 3 (2010): 294.
performance techniques, and thematic exploration. In 2016, to commemorate the four hundredth anniversary of the deaths of both Shakespeare and Tang Xianzu, the Zhejiang Xiaobaihua Yue Opera Troupe premiered the Yue opera Coriolanus and Du Liniang at the Peacock Theatre in London, aiming to engage an international audience. [1] The production’s chief director, Guo Xiaonan, remarked, “On this occasion, we brought together Shakespeare’s Coriolanus, often regarded as one of his greatest works, and The Peony Pavilion, a masterpiece of traditional Chinese theater. Through this performance, we aim to introduce Western audiences to the richness of Chinese theatrical heritage while offering a fresh perspective on their classics.”[2] The production Coriolanus and Du Liniang exemplifies one of the pathways the Xiaobaihua Yue Opera Troupe has explored in bringing xiqu to the global stage. It also reflects a growing sense of cultural confidence when participating in equal dialogues in world theatre.
In sum, Chinese playwrights chose foreign classics for adaptations to leverage the wide recognition and influence of these works to foster a bidirectional flow of culture and promote the global circulation of xiqu adaptations. This practice has not only contributed to the international dissemination of Chinese xiqu but also, to some extent, reinforced the global cultural impact of the foreign classics themselves. Moreover, challenging Eurocentrism and the prevailing dominance of Western classics in global cultural discourse, these adaptations serve as vehicles for infusing Eastern aesthetics, philosophical traditions, and performative conventions into Western dramatic narratives. In doing so, they not only challenge dominant cultural paradigms but also create—albeit within constrained spaces—opportunities for international audiences to encounter and appreciate the richness of Chinese literature, art, and performance. Nevertheless, successful international dissemination represents only an initial step for Chinese xiqu to ascend the international stage; the important goal of such cross-cultural engagement is to cultivate sustained comprehension and appreciation of xiqu across diverse cultural contexts.
III. Global Reception of Chinese Xiqu Adaptations of Foreign Plays
Chinese xiqu adaptations of foreign plays have attracted considerable acclaim, both at home and abroad. They have also elicited strong emotional resonance and enthusiastic support from international audiences. In 2001, when the Sichuan Youth Opera Troupe performed Makebai furen in Germany, the cast received multiple rounds of curtain calls from a genuinely exuberant audience. To show admiration, some spectators even celebrated the performance by pasting promotional posters onto wine bottles. The media praised the production for allowing “more and more foreigners to understand and fall in love with Sichuan opera.”[3] Robert Combs, a professor in the Department of English at George Washington University, attended a 2014 U.S. performance of Yuhai kuangchao by the Chengdu Academy of Sichuan Opera and remarked, “I enjoyed it tremendously, I said, and would return in a heartbeat to witness another Chinese xiqu performance, especially one produced by the Sichuan Opera Theatre of Chengdu.”[4] The profound aesthetic appeal and artistic depth of Chinese opera resonated deeply with international audiences, leaving a lasting impression.
Following the 1986 Shakespeare Theater Festival, literary critic Wang Yuanhua observed: “International audiences praised the performance of Shakespeare plays in traditional Chinese xiqu, either out of curiosity or because they wanted to see how China understands Shakespeare.”[5] Wang’s comment, made nearly four decades ago, remains highly relevant today. While Chinese playwrights continue to favor well-known foreign classics for xiqu adaptation, not all audience members are necessarily familiar with these playwrights or their works. The audience often comprises of general spectators as well as scholars and theater enthusiasts. In A Theory of Adaptation, scholar Linda Hutcheon classifies viewers according to their familiarity with the source material, distinguishing between “knowing and unknowing audiences.”[6] Different audiences have varying levels of familiarity and expectations regarding the original work. Consequently, their emotional responses and the interpretive insights during and after the viewing experience can vary considerably.
[1] Wang Fuzhou, China Art Yearbook 2017 (Vol. 1, Culture and Arts Publishing House, 2021), 135.
[2] Guo Chao, “Telling China’s Story to the World,” Guangming Daily, September 1, 2016, 9
[3] Gao Shanhu, Cross-Cultural Communication of Sichuan Opera, 103.
[4] Robert Combs, “Raging Waves in the Sea of Desire, Dir. by Zhang Manjun (review),”
The Eugene O’Neill Review 36, no. 2 (2015): 234.
[5] Wang Yuanhua, “Staging Shakespeare in China,” from Sibian suibi (speculative Essays), (Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House, 2023), 274.
[6] Linda Hutcheon, A Theory of Adaptation (New York: Routledge, 2013), 120. The quotation, cited by the author, is drawn from the Chinese translation of this book: Gaibian lilun, translated by Ren Chuanxia (Tsinghua University Press, 2019), 82.
General viewers who are unfamiliar with the source material often approach xiqu performances out of curiosity or a desire for entertainment. Liu Haiping recalled that when the Zhengzhou Qu Opera Troupe performed at Kansas State University in 2002, an estimate of 1000 people showed up, about half of which were students, and the other half consisting of faculty, staff, and local community residents. Notably, all attendees purchased tickets… Most American audience members were unfamiliar with the play, and many did not even know who Eugene O’Neill was.” Yet “the audience responded with marked enthusiasm, as laughter and applause at the moments of knowing echoed throughout the performance. This dynamic interaction between performers and spectators persisted from start to finish, fostering a deep emotional resonance and a shared experiential connection across the stage-audience divide.”[1] Despite their unfamiliarity with the plot, the audience remained deeply engaged, captivated by the expressive and emotive richness of unique artistry of Chinese xiqu. Liu observed: “If we were to stage a huaju performance for a foreign audience, the language barrier and reliance on extended monologues could hinder comprehension and emotional engagement. In contrast, traditional xiqu integrates a rich array of theatrical elements and visually expressive features, which have significantly contributed to its success in international contexts. Audiences abroad are often particularly captivated by the music, costumes, stylized physical gestures and makeup.”[2] Director Luo Jinlin also noted that following a performance of Mei Di Ya (Medea) in the Hebei Bangzi opera style at the Halandri Theater in Athens, “enthusiastic audience members approached both the stage and backstage areas to present gifts to the performers. They eagerly examined the costumes, props, and instruments, demonstrating a profound interest in every aspect of the production.”[3] Chinese xiqu features a diverse range of performance styles, integrating singing, speaking, acting, and acrobatics into a comprehensive and multifaceted art form. It also encompasses a wide array of specialized techniques. Serve as major attractions for foreign audiences are special elements such as the renowned bian lian (face-changing) technique featured in the Sichuan opera Yuhai kuangchao. Scholars and theater enthusiasts who are familiar with the original works are more savvy about the interpretive depth of the adaptations. Prior knowledge of the original plot allows audiences to appreciate and engage with the nuances of a xiqu adaptation. For example, when the Ping opera Chengbang enchou was performed at the Elefsina Theater Festival in Greece in 2015, an audience member, Chounta, remarked, “We were already familiar with the storyline, so it’s easy to follow the subtitles. As the play unfolded, it felt remarkably similar to a Greek play, an ideal fusion of Greek drama and Chinese xiqu. The music was superb; everything was wonderful.”[4] In 2014, the Ningbo Yong Opera Troupe adapted Eugene O’Neill’s Anna Christie into the Yong opera Andi and staged it at Grinnell College’s Roberts Theatre in the United States. For the same occasion, Grinnell College students presented an English-language production of Anna Christie at the same venue. The two productions alternated, offering distinct interpretations of the play and receiving positive feedback from audiences. Professor Sandy Moffett, the director of the English version, remarked, “It will be fascinating to compare and contrast these two productions of the same drama in different languages and art forms, as both versions are performed in alternation…The style of traditional Chinese xiqu and dance is quite different from the Western style, and should interest anyone interested in the history of opera, dance or China.”[5] The juxtaposed performances of the two productions familiarized audiences with the original narrative and themes before they intuitively discerned the distinctive nuances of the xiqu adaptation by comparing it with the theatrical style they already knew. This comparative experience fostered a deeper appreciation and more profound engagement with the artistic richness of Chinese xiqu.
Audiences who are familiar with the original texts often approach xiqu adaptations with a more critical eye, focusing closely on how the original work is
reinterpreted and represented in performance. As Linda Hutcheon suggested, “the appeal
of adaptations for audiences lies in their mixture of repetition and di?erence, of
familiarity and novelty. ”[6] The viewers come to the theater with some expectations, and as they watch the performance,
they inevitably compare the adaptation with the original. At times, the adaptation
faithfully reproduces the source material, evoking a powerful emotional response;
at other times, it diverges from these expectations, offering
[1] Liu Haiping, “O'Neill, Chinese Opera, and Sino-American Cultural Exchange—A Discussion
Starting from Zhengzhou Qu Opera Troupe’s Visit to the U.S.” 221.
[2] He Chengzhou, “The Professor Salon on ‘Theatrical Adaptation’” Yishu Bajia (Hundreds of Schools in Arts), no. 2, 2009.
[3] Luo Jinlin, “Staging Ancient Greek Tragedy through Traditional Chinese Opera,” Da wutai (Grand Stage), 1995, No. 4.
[4] “Chinese Ping Opera Chengbang enchou Shines at Greek Theater Festival,” Xinhua International Channel, July 31, 2015.
[5] “Sharing the Stage,” Grinnell College, October 1, 2014.
[6]. A Theory of Adaptation, 114. The quotation, cited by the author, is drawn from the Chinese translation of this book, 78
unexpected and refreshing new experiences. Hutcheon explains, “Part of this ongoing dialogue with the past, for that is what adaptation means for audiences, creates the doubled pleasure of the palimpsest: more than one text is experienced—and knowingly so.”[1] For “knowing” audiences, watching an adaptation is a dual-layered experience: it not only deepens their appreciation of the original work but also enriches their understanding of distinctive qualities and interpretive nuances of the adaptation. After watching the Sichuan opera Yuhai kuangchao, Robert Combs reflected on how the treatment of the theme of “desire” differed across the two versions: “Raging Waves in the Sea of Desire presents desire neither as a moral temptation to be resisted nor as a psychological condition to be understood, ironically always too late, but, in an Eastern way, as a force requiring patience, balance, and moderation.”[2] Audiences familiar with the original work are often better equipped to discern how adaptations engage with the core spirit of the source text and to critically reflect on how varying cultural perspectives interpret shared themes.
In instances of Chinese xiqu adaptations of foreign plays, both general audiences and scholars, both knowing and unknowing audiences have formed profound connections with the xiqu renditions, reflecting their active engagement and interpretive involvement. Erika Fischer-Lichte argues that: “In order to be in a position to perform the process of assigning meaning, the audience must in fact commit itself to an active and creative relation to the production.”[3] Chinese opera troupes’ efforts to adapt foreign plays for international audiences aim not only to promote theatrical exchange, but also to cultivate broader recognition and appreciation of Chinese xiqu. As a result, both casual spectators drawn by the aesthetic allure of the genre and scholars engaged by its content and adaptation strategies serve as key target audiences. The enthusiastic reception from overseas viewers suggests that these adaptations resonate on a deep level, as the artistic richness and thematic expression of Chinese xiqu transcend linguistic and cultural boundaries.
At the core of intercultural adaptation is the presentation of Chinese xiqu aesthetics alongside Chinese philosophical and cultural values. For adapters, a central
challenge lies in deciding whether to remain faithful to the foreign culture, foreground
Chinese traditions, or to pursue a harmonious integration of both. Regarding this
dilemma, Lu Gusun argues: “Performing Shakespeare through the lens of traditional
Chinese opera entails a host of complex issues involving comparative literature, reception
aesthetics, folklore, and social psychology. The fusion of two distinct cultural forms
is an exceedingly intricate task. Allowing foreign culture to erode or overwhelm national
culture is clearly a mistake, but so too is asserting one’s cultural identity in a
way that disregards or suppresses the uniqueness of the foreign work.”[4] While Lu’s perspective emphasizes how Chinese audiences receive and interpret the
localization of foreign plays, in the broader context of international dissemination,
preserving the uniqueness and sovereignty of national culture becomes even more critical.
Patrice Pavis argues that adaptation does not require the adapter to subordinate their
own culture to that of the source, saying, “Adapting involves setting up meaning that
is not self-evident, by facilitating its reception and comprehension, by intervening
in the mediation between cultures and connections between cultures. The adapter can
perceive the difference between his culture and the foreign one, without setting up
hierarchies or attempting to reduce one to the other.”[5] Compared with adaptations into Chinese modern drama, adaptations into Chinese xiqu exhibit more pronounced stylistic and aesthetic characteristics, including distinctive
stage design and philosophical depth. Playwrights, well-versed in the expressive conventions
of Chinese xiqu, may integrate Western dramatic techniques; however, they consistently retain traditional
xiqu methods and the unique cultural essence of the East. Reflecting on the Hebei Bangzi
version of Medea, director Luo Jinlin remarked, “In our production of Medea, we fully
utilized the features of Chinese xiqu such as ‘virtuality,’ ‘typecasting,’ and ‘integrated performance.’… Not only did
the audience understand it, they deeply appreciated it.”[6] The all-female cast of the Yue opera (from Zhejiang province) Coriolanus and Du Liniang
[1] A Theory of Adaptation, 116. The quotation, cited by the author, is drawn from the Chinese translation of
this book, 79
[2] Combs, “Raging Waves in the Sea of Desire, Dir. by Zhang Manjun (review),” The Eugene O’Neill Review, 36, no. 2 (2015): 234
[3] Erika Fischer-Lichte, “The Avant-Garde and the Semiotics of the Antitextual Gesture,”
in Contours of the Theatrical Avant-Garde: Performance and Textuality, ed. James M. Harding (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2000), 91.
[4] Lu Gusun, Ten Lectures on Shakespeare (Fudan University Press, 2017), 98–99.
[5] Patrice Pavis, Theatre at the Crossroads of Culture, trans. Loren Kruger (London: Routledge, 1992), 186. See also the original French
edition: Pavis Patrice, Le Thé?tre au croisement des cultures (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France (PUF), 1990), 204 : “Adapter, c'est toujours
aussi arranger une signification qui ne va pas de soi, en facilitant sa réception
et sa compréhension, en intervenant dans la médiation et la mise en contact des cultures.
L'adaptateur est capable de percevoir la différence, et d'abord la différence entre
sa(notre) culture et la culture étrangère, sans chercher à les hiérarchiser ou à réduire
l'une à l'autre.”
[6] Luo Jinlin, “Staging Ancient Greek Tragedy through Traditional Chinese Opera,”
Da Wutai (Grand Stage,) 1995, No. 4, 51.
also amazed and moved many foreign viewers.[1] It is precisely the distinctive artistic expression and aesthetic style of Chinese xiqu that captivates international audiences. Arjun Appadurai emphasizes the significance of locality within global cultural flows, stating, “because, in the end, this is where our vitally important archives reside. Localities—in this world and in this argument—are temporary negotiations between various globally circulating forms. They are not subordinate instances of the global, but in fact the main evidence of its reality.”[2] In this context, the artistic value of Chinese xiqu, along with the philosophical and cultural meanings embedded in its adaptations, sets these productions apart from their original Western counterparts, and other global reinterpretations. These qualities allow Chinese xiqu to assert its national identity and cultural sovereignty amid the broader dynamics of global cultural exchange.
IV. Conclusion
In 1931, playwright Xiong Foxi wrote in his monograph Xiong Foxi on Drama, “Any form of art must possess both universality and nationality. Without universality, it cannot be widely circulated or attain artistic perfection; without nationality, it is like a person without personality, a fundamental flaw in the art itself too.” He further pointed out that traditional Chinese xiqu at the time “lacked universality.”[3] How, then, can traditional Chinese xiqu simultaneously reflect national identity and cultural sovereignty while achieving global status and universality? The efforts of Chinese dramatists to adapt foreign classics into the framework of Chinese xiqu represent an attempt to address this question. By drawing on the universal themes, established reputation, and cultural influence of canonical works, these adaptations are more easily positioned in global cultural markets, offering international audiences an accessible entry point into Chinese xiqu traditions. At the same time, by preserving the distinct aesthetic, philosophical, and performative qualities of Chinese xiqu, these adaptations retain the richness of local culture, using its unique artistic language to engage and move audiences across cultural boundaries.
In recent years, China has been promoting “Chinese stories” and the presentation of Chinese culture on the global stage. The adaptation of foreign dramas into Chinese xiqu serves as a vivid embodiment of this cultural initiative—employing well-known foreign classics as a bridge and medium to facilitate deeper cross-cultural understanding and dialogue. As professional critic Charlotte Kasner put in her review of the Yue opera Coriolanus and Du Liniang, “It is a captivating work that reminds us of the power of cultural ties, leaves one mesmerized for the full three hours and produces an aching desire that hostilities never increase between our two countries.”[4] Such a review offers a powerful affirmation of the cultural bridge that Chinese xiqu adaptations of foreign plays are capable of building.
The international circulation and reception of Chinese xiqu adaptations of foreign plays underscore the creativity and adaptability of this art form in cross-cultural contexts, while also affirming its potential on the global stage. This form of cultural exchange expands the expressive scope and performative dimensions of Chinese xiqu and broadens audiences’ artistic perspectives. It makes a distinctive contribution to the diversification, intercultural dialogue between, and mutual enrichment of global theatrical cultures.
(Editor: Zhao Jianxin)
[1] Pan Yu, “Shakespeare and Tang Xianzu in Dialogue: Yue Opera Coriolanus and Du
Liniang Premieres in London,” The Paper, August 4, 2016. https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_1508505
[2] Appadurai, “How Histories Make Geographies: Circulation and Context in a Global
Perspective,” 12.
[3] Xiong Foxi, Xiong Foxi on Drama, Xinyue (Crescent) Bookstore, 1931, 147–148.
[4] Charlotte Kasner, “Shakespeare meets Tang Xianzu: Coriolanus and Du Liniang,”
SeeingDance, July 25, 2016.
This article was first published in Chinese in 2025.
Chen, Shuying. “The Return of the Classics: The Global Circulation and Reception of Chinese Xiqu Adaptations of Foreign Plays.” Journal of National Academy of Chinese Theatre Arts [Beijing], vol. 46, no. 1, 2025, pp. 144–54.
Author Bio:
Chen Shuying is a lecturer in the Department of Chinese Language and Literature at
the College of Liberal Arts, Shanghai University. Her primary research interests include
comparative studies of Chinese and foreign drama and cross-cultural adaptation.
Translator: Yisha Ma
Proofreaders: Chenqing Song, Xi Wang